Different Types of Validity (AQA A-Level Psychology 2027)
What is validity?
Validity refers to whether a test, measure or investigation measures what it is intended to measure.
Face validity
Definition
Face validity is the extent to which a questionnaire, test or measure appears (on the face of it) to be measuring what it claims to measure.
Example
A psychologist develops a questionnaire to measure social anxiety. A panel of experienced psychologists reviews the questions and agrees that they appear to measure social anxiety. The questionnaire therefore has good face validity.
How is it assessed?
By asking experts or members of the target population whether the measure appears to assess the intended behaviour.
How can it be improved?
Pilot the questionnaire.
Ask experts to review the items.
Rewrite or remove ambiguous questions.
Concurrent validity
Definition
Concurrent validity is the extent to which a psychological measure relates to an existing similar measure. It is assessed by comparing a new measure with one that has already been shown to be valid.
Example
A psychologist develops a new questionnaire measuring depression. Participants complete both the new questionnaire and the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI). If participants obtain similar scores on both measures, the new questionnaire has good concurrent validity.
How is it assessed?
Compare participants' scores on the new measure with scores on an established, validated measure.
How can it be improved?
Compare the new measure with a recognised validated test.
Ensure both tests measure the same psychological construct.
Ecological validity
Definition
Ecological validity is a form of external validity that focuses on the extent to which research findings can be generalised to other settings or everyday life.
Example
Milgram's obedience study has been criticised for having low ecological validity because administering what participants believed were electric shocks in a laboratory does not reflect behaviour in everyday life.
How can it be improved?
Use tasks that are more representative of everyday behaviour.
Conduct research in natural settings where appropriate.
(I would avoid saying simply "carry out the study in a natural setting." The current AQA guidance emphasises that ecological validity is mainly about how realistic the task is, not just where it takes place.)
Temporal validity
Definition
Temporal validity is a form of external validity that focuses on the ability to generalise findings beyond the particular historical context of the study.
Examples
Asch's (1951) conformity study may have lower temporal validity because social attitudes and levels of conformity may have changed since the 1950s.
Research investigating attitudes towards mental illness conducted several decades ago may also have lower temporal validity because public understanding and acceptance of mental illness have changed over time.
How can it be improved?
Replicate studies with contemporary participants.
Repeat research at different points in time to determine whether the findings remain applicable.
How To Write A 16mark Essay Question
How to Write a 16-Mark Essay for AQA A-Level Psychology
If you’re studying AQA A-level Psychology, the 16-mark essay can feel daunting. It’s worth a large chunk of your exam, it tests both knowledge and evaluation, and it’s easy to lose marks if your answer isn’t structured clearly.
The good news? There is a reliable method. In this guide, I’ll walk you step by step through how to plan, structure, and write a strong 16-mark essay that examiners are looking for.
1. Understand What the 16 Marks Are Testing
AQA 16-mark essays are almost always split into:
AO1 (Knowledge & Description) – usually 6 marks
AO3 (Evaluation) – usually 10 marks
This means evaluation is weighted more heavily, but the strongest answers interweave AO1 and AO3 rather than separating them completely.
A very effective and examiner-friendly structure is:
AO1 → AO3 → AO1 → AO3
This allows you to demonstrate clear knowledge, immediately evaluate it, and show sustained critical thinking throughout your essay.
2. Start With a Clear Plan (2–3 Minutes)
Planning is not a waste of time — it actually saves time and prevents waffle.
A simple plan should include:
AO1: What key theory, model, or explanation will you outline?
AO3: 3–4 clear evaluation points (e.g. research support, limitations, real-world applications, issues with methodology).
Example plan:
AO1: Outline the cognitive explanation of depression
AO3:
Supporting research
Reductionism
Practical applications
Comparison with another explanation
3. Use the AO1–AO3–AO1–AO3 Formula
Rather than writing all of your AO1 first and all of your AO3 afterwards, many high-mark essays use an alternating structure:
Paragraph 1: AO1 – Outline the first key part of the theory
Paragraph 2: AO3 – Evaluate that part of the theory
Paragraph 3: AO1 – Outline the next key part of the theory
Paragraph 4: AO3 – Evaluate again
This structure helps you:
Stay focused on the question
Avoid long descriptive sections
Show the examiner continuous evaluation
4. How to Write an AO1 Paragraph
Your AO1 paragraph should be clear, accurate, and directly relevant to the question.
A strong AO1 paragraph:
Introduces one key concept, explanation, or component of the theory
Uses correct psychological terminology
Explains ideas clearly without unnecessary detail
Think of AO1 as answering:
What is the theory saying?
5. How to Write an AO3 Paragraph (With Counter-Arguments)
To reach the top mark bands, your AO3 should not just list strengths and weaknesses. Examiners reward answers that show debate, which means including counter-arguments.
A high-level AO3 paragraph follows this structure:
Point → Evidence → Explain → Counter-argument → Link back
Example AO3 Paragraph Structure
Point: One strength of the theory is that it is supported by research evidence.
Evidence: For example, research by Beck found that depressed individuals show negative cognitive biases.
Explain: This supports the theory because it suggests faulty thinking patterns play a key role in depression.
Counter-argument: However, this evidence is correlational, so it cannot establish cause and effect. It may be that depression causes negative thinking rather than the other way around.
Link: Therefore, although research support increases credibility, the explanation may still lack validity.
Including a counter-argument shows the examiner that you can:
Think critically
Evaluate evidence rather than accept it at face value
Engage with psychological debate
Examiners like to see breadth and depth. Useful AO3 points include:
Research support or contradictory evidence
Methodological issues (e.g. cause and effect, self-report bias)
Reductionism vs holism
Determinism vs free will
Real-world applications
Comparisons with other explanations
You don’t need all of these — just choose the ones that best fit the question.
6. Using Counter-Arguments Throughout the Essay
You do not need a counter-argument in every AO3 paragraph, but including at least one or two well-developed counter-arguments can significantly boost your evaluation marks.
Common ways to introduce counter-arguments include:
However…
On the other hand…
This can be criticised because…
An alternative explanation is…
You can also strengthen evaluation by responding to the counter-argument:
Despite this limitation, the theory may still be useful because…
This shows balanced judgement rather than one-sided criticism.
7. Write a Brief Conclusion (Optional but Helpful)
A conclusion is not essential, but a short one can help tie your answer together.
8. Timing and Exam Technique
A good rule of thumb:
16-mark essay = about 20 minutes
Suggested timing:
Plan: 2–3 minutes
AO1: 5 minutes
AO3: 12 minutes
If you’re running out of time, prioritise AO3.
Final Checklist Before You Finish
Before moving on, quickly check:
Have I answered the question directly?
Have I included enough evaluation?
Have I used key psychological terms accurately?
Are my points clearly explained?
Final Thought
Writing a strong 16-mark essay isn’t about writing more — it’s about writing smartly and strategically. With clear structure, focused AO1, and well-developed AO3, you can consistently hit the top mark bands.
If you’d like support practising exam questions or improving your evaluation skills, feel free to get in touch through the website.